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BAs function as signaling molecules through various receptors, including farnesoid X receptor (FXR), vitamin D receptor, pregnane X receptor and members of the G-protein-coupled receptor superfamily, to regulate their own synthesis as well as other metabolic processes, such as glucose, lipid and energy metabolism ( An animal study conducted by Koeth and colleagues found that TMAO decreases the bile acid pool size and inhibits the expressions of the key BA synthetic enzymes (Cyp7a1 and Cyp27a1) and BA transporters (Oatp1, Oatp4, Mrp2, and Ntcp) in the liver ( Unfolded Protein Response Another underlying mechanism of TMAO in the development of MAFLD maybe unfolded protein response (UPR)
The dominant premenopausal oestrogen, 17-oestradiol, opposes NF-B-driven inflammation in obesity, whereas oestrone, which dominates after menopause, promotes it
